Neurodevelopmental disorders （NDDs） are traditionally characterized by a range of associated cognitive impairments.　On the other hand, the concept of neurodiversity has been developed to improve awareness and inclusion of individuals with NDDs.　

　　To fully appreciate the implications of developmental problems in individuals with NDDs, two functionally and neural distinct cognitive selection mechanisms involve the prefrontal lobes:those based on internal representations （context dependent） and those involving exploratory processing of novel situations （context independent）.　We used a cognitive bias task （CBT） representing contextual reasoning to correlate lateralization with age in the frontal lobes.　Young children showed context-independent responses representing right frontal lobe function, while adolescents and adults showed context-dependent responses implicating left frontal lobe function. 　The children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder （AD/HD） showed context-independent responses.　To identify functional anatomy of context-dependent reasoning, we used EEG power spectrum analysis during performance of the CBT.　The powers of EEG increased from right to left in the frontal cortices in typically developmental children （TD）, whereas AD/HD showed the right frontal activation during performance of the CBT.

　　The human visual system consists of parallel two pathways （dorsal pathway for stereoscopic depth, motion, ventral pathway for shape, color and face）.　Magnetoencephalography （MEG） studies during face recognition task revealed that the N170 dipole source localization of the parietal cortices seen in the autism spectrum disorders （ASD） was different from that of right fusiform gyrus seen in TD, suggesting different face recognitions of part-based processing in ASD, holistic processing in TD, respectively. Accordingly, the possible differential physiological mechanism of ASD is discussed in terms of face recognition.

　　We propose a reframing the variety of unique cognitive strengths in the NDDs with neurodevelopmental differences.　The reframing should help reduce the stigma around neurodiversity, instead promoting social inclusion and significant benefits.　Cognitive neuroscience is therefore important to increase understanding the potential cognitive strengths, and remove stigma in individuals with NDDs.

　　In many clinical trials conducted to date on patients with mild cognitive impairment （MCI） and dementia, neuropsychological tests have been used as endpoints, and their usefulness has been demonstrated in many papers.　Even now, it can be said that the success or failure of a clinical trial depends on the appropriate selection and implementation of neuropsychological tests.　To standardize neuropsychological testing, we set up a central adjudication committee for neuropsychological tests in the COMCID study, an investigator-initiated clinical trial that we conducted.　The central adjudication committee assessed all neuropsychological tests conducted at the 15 participating facilities in Japan and provided training to testers as necessary.　They also confirmed that the tests were being conducted appropriately and provided feedback to testers as needed. Establishing an independent central neuropsychological review board for multicenter trials has great potential for ensuring the quality of neuropsychological testing and other benefits.　At the same time, centralized management of the original source documents and data for neuropsychological testing can lead to more efficient direct source document verification and cost reductions.

　　The social brain is an important research field in cognitive neuroscience.　Hyperscanning studies, i.e., measuring the activity of multiple brains simultaneously, are now being conducted to clarify the neural basis of social interaction （e.g., communication）.　Typical instruments for non- or minimally invasive recording of brain function are electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography （MEG）, near-infrared spectroscopy, and fMRI.　MEG is considered tobe suitable for recording brain functions during communication due to its high temporal and spatial resolutions.　However, research facilities that own multiple MEGs are extremely rare and only a few reports are available.　Therefore, we connected two MEGs located at Hokkaido University by fiber optic to enable simultaneous recording of brain functions of two communicating persons using audio-visual equipment.　So far, we have conducted studies on nonverbal communication, musical communication, verbal communication, as well as avatar communication.　By the verbal communication study, it was suggested that a wide range of brain regions are involved in the social brain, such as mentalizing.　Hyperscanning may provide new insights into the mechanisms of autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia.　It is expected that our understanding of social interaction will deepen, and the foundations of the social brain will be elucidated in the future.

　　The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of multisensory learning with haptic resources on school-aged children in Japan.　The three-dimensional Japanese phonogram（kana）designed for haptic learning were used in this study.　8 children with developmental reading and writing difficulties and difficulties with RAN（Rapid Automatized Naming）tasks have completed multisensory learning using these japanese kana.　Haptic reading learning was conducted by following the sequence of basic characters composed of kana, irregular mora characters, single words, and short sentences, while watching, touching, and reading the materials aloud.　The study showed the positive impact of multisensory learning on the RAN subtest in STRAW-R in 7 out of 8 students post-learning.　Also, the scores in reading fluency improved in 7out of 8 students with reading difficulties, as did the scores in the Kana writing task in 4 out of 4 children with writing difficulties.　The questionnaire completed post-study revealed a reduced effort on reading and writing.　Reading training with active touch improved the letter and word shape memory and formation of associative memory between letters and sounds through haptic exposure.　However, it does not explain the increased score in the RAN task, as numbers and pictures, which are stimuli of RAN tasks, were not included in our learning task.　The improvement in letter shape memory through haptic learning may have functioned as a cognitive cue within working memory, facilitating the recall of phonological information.